Xi Bai

Scientific researcher

030-6069708
xi.bai@kwrwater.nl

Artist in Residence programme

The Artist in Residence (AiR) programme at KWR brings together artistic and scientific research practices to develop new perspectives on water-related challenges. By creating space for imagination, reflection and experimentation, it contributes to alternative forms of knowledge production and transformative learning…

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Myths & Sagas

Stories give meaning to water. Water plays different roles in myths and sagas, not only as a physical element but also as a life force, as a threat, as a moral force or as a partner. Through…

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Role of microbes in smell/taste complaints

Drinking water utilities receive consumer complaints every year about the smell and taste of drinking water. The causes of these smell and taste complaints are often unknown. However, there may be a microbial…

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Engaged Citizenship

There has been a strong focus on different forms of active, engaged or democratic citizenship in recent years. For example, in mid-2024, the lower house of the Dutch parliament conducted a debate about a parliamentary letter on…

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Building trust

Trust is a topic that has been the subject of a great deal of research, both inside and outside the water sector. In general, this research has shown that trust in drinking water and drinking water utilities is…

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CHILL – Cooling and Heating Integrated Low Temperature Logistics

The CHILL project is investigating how public very-low-temperature networks (VLT networks) can become an affordable, safe and future-resilient heating and cooling solution for the built environment. By contributing…

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BROWSE – Determining and Reporting the Environmental Impact of the Dutch Water Sector

In the BROWSE project, we are developing a scientifically based method and calculation tool for quantifying the environmental impact of drinking water utilities. In the process, we are…

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Does Environmental Weathering Alter the TGA-GC/MS Fingerprints of Microplastics?

Microplastics have become a growing concern in aquatic environments due to their potential impact on ecosystems and human health. However, reliable identification of microplastics remains challenging, as environmental…

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Diagnostics of ecological surface water quality with DNA tools

The Netherlands is required to comply with the European Water Framework Directive (WFD) by 2027 at the latest but the quality of many surface waters still falls short.…

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Polishing Pellets Recharged

Phosphate pollution leads to excessive algal growth and threatens aquatic life, while stricter WFD and wastewater guidelines present a major phosphate-removal challenge. KWR is developing the Polishing Pellet, a pellet made from the ferrous sludge produced during…

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Pure Fresh Water and Salt

Changing conditions and future challenges such as anthropogenic pollution and salinisation mean that water utilities are faced with the task of improving robustness and their operational strategies. Reverse osmosis (RO) membrane filtration serves as a strong barrier…

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Breaking Barriers down for Water Quality

Industrial problem substances are increasingly present in surface and water groundwater, posing a threat to public health through drinking water and food supplies, as well the health of nature, and therefore the…

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Energy Grass Project – Water-Resilient Natural Grass for Sports Fields

The managers of sports complexes face major challenges. The chemical control of pests and weeds has been phased out and the leaching of fertilizers has to be reduced.…

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Circular Living Lab for Waterwise Construction

We are working in this project on three unresolved knowledge gaps in the field of waterwise construction: (1) securing public health, (2) an integral overview of promising system concepts, and (3) sustainability…

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Deep Adaptation for the Water Sector, phase 2

This project is researching and developing an action perspective for the water sector in relation to possible rapid and long-term changes in the local context or in society that result in new…

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Area-based PFAS approach: system & governance analysis

Work package 1: system analysis On the basis of the available knowledge, literature and monitoring data acquired in the Clean Meuse Water Chain (SMWK), establish a picture of…

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Together for Balance II. Water system and water chain connected

In recent years, the WiCE research programme has developed knowledge in both physical-scientific and social-scientific research relating to ways of shaping the water transition. In the WiCE project…

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Improved Monitoring for Microbiologically Safe Bathing Water

The information available to bathers, water managers and health services is currently inadequate for a satisfactory assessment of the microbiological risks of leisure bathing in surface waters. The…

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Mixture Toxicity Assessment: Advanced Approaches for Drinking Water Quality

This project addresses the growing concern over the health effects of chemical mixtures, which can differ significantly from the effects of individual chemicals. The challenge is exacerbated by…

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Safeguarding drinking water treatment processes with indigenous viruses

Sources for the production of drinking water are increasingly under pressure, partly due to urbanisation, industrialisation and climate change. As a result, alternative sources are being used more…

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Detecting (Nano)plastics in Environmental Water Samples

Microplastics have become a growing concern in urban water systems due to their potential impact on both the environment and human health. However, detecting and identifying microplastics—especially in…

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WaterWise Hub

The WaterWise Excellence Hub is a vibrant, action-oriented initiative that aspires to serve as a catalyst for R&I (creation and uptake), business development, and knowledge dissemination for water in the circular economy (CE). It applies circular economy…

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Joint Water Matchmaker

The Waterwijs exploratory research includes the development of a new methodology for designing optimised and future-resilient infrastructure. The aim is to achieve a better balance between water supply and demand at the regional level (across utility boundaries),…

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An integrated view from source to tap enabled by digital innovation

This project is creating a blueprint for the development of digital twin applications and services in order to establish a complete picture from source to tap. The applications…

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The different drinking water customers

Drinking water utilities often direct their strategy and communication to the average customer, or to a small number of customer profiles. There is therefore a good chance that certain groups of individuals…

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Chemradar: high-risk contaminants on the radar?

New substances are developed and marketed every year. At the same time, our knowledge about existing substances continues to grow. For the drinking water sector, it is essential to closely monitor these…

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WaterpatRoon: non-target screening to routine application

Non-target screening is already a powerful technology for monitoring up to thousands of known and unknown substances in a water sample. However, further improvements will be possible in…

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Decision-making under deep uncertainty in the drinking water sector – exploring (DAPP) Multirisk Pathways as a methodology

Climate change, technological developments, and population growth are examples of sources of deep uncertainty that can have a significant impact on the drinking water sector. The Dynamic Adaptive…

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Protecting Drinking Water Under Different Regulations

Despite advancements in water treatment methods, pervasive water pollution and discussions about alternative sources of drinking water are eliciting stronger regulatory action and pressing the drinking water sector…

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Justice as a pillar for the water sector

In 2023, the Netherlands Scientific Council for Government Policy (WRR) advocated that justice, along with efficiency and legality, should also constitute an important pillar of climate policy and the related ongoing transitions.…

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Role Performance and Stakeholder Strategies

A utility that does not behave as expected may create unclear situations or even lose credibility. It is therefore essential to examine how role performance is shaped in stakeholder processes and which…

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CIRSEAU – Building a water-smart economy and society

In a water-smart society, all available water resources—including surface water, groundwater, wastewater, and process water—are managed to prevent water scarcity and pollution, increase resilience to climate change, mitigate…

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WATERVERSE

Data spaces are protected environments where participants can access, process and use data, amongst other things. With a focus on water data spaces, the EU-funded Waterverse project aims to develop a water data management ecosystem that will…

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NATALIE

NATALIE addresses the risks posed by climate change and its impacts and proposes to advance the concepts of “ecosystem-based adaptation” in Europe combined with climate resilient development pathways. With the means for impact driven Nature-Based Solutions (NBS),…

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The FRESHMAN-project

Drinking water companies worldwide have freshwater supply problems. The main freshwater source for the Dutch water utility company Dunea is the Maas River, together with the Lek. However, due to extreme drought and intrusion of salty water…

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Getting to grips with indirect discharges

Water authorities, environmental services and municipal authorities are increasingly seeing discharges of large quantities of chemical waste and other undesirable substances into the drains and therefore indirectly to surface water. That results…

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Flexibility in water

This project addresses the question of how, and in which conditions, water utilities can use the flexibility in the management of their assets to be better placed in a changing energy system. That is important for several…

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Water & Energy network group

Global efforts to cut greenhouse gas emissions include switching to cleaner and more sustainable energy sources. Water plays an essential role in this energy transition. In addition, drinking water utilities can contribute to the energy transition with…

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Investigating the options for low-temperature hot tap water in non-residential buildings

Low-temperature (LT) collective hot tapwater systems have a range of advantages over conventional higher-temperature systems. Legionella safety for hot tap water does represent a significant challenge here. Advantages…

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Pesticides in Dutch drinking water sources

By 2027, the Netherlands must comply with the Water Framework Directive (WFD) and the chemical quality of all designated groundwater and surface waters must be good. The latest WFD evaluation has shown…

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HPLC-UV screening project

HPLC-UV (high performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection) has been used for over fifteen years by Rijkswaterstaat and Aqualab Zuid to monitor surface water quality. It is a robust, relatively simple technique for the early detection of…

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MOMENTUM – Study of the effects of micro- en nanoplastics on health

Micro- and nanoplastic particles (MNPs) have, as a result of plastic use and pollution, been found everywhere, both in the environment and in the human body. The Netherlands…

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PyHarmony: Development and harmonization of pyrolysis GC-MS methods for the identification and quantification of micro- and nanoplastics

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNP) are a health and environmental concern but little is known about the extent of the problem. Current analytical techniques are unable to reliably quantify…

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Knowledge file for the water transition and drinking water

The drinking water sector’s collective research programme Waterwijs has developed a lot of knowledge that is valuable and that can be used in work on the water transition.…

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IDEATION – Inland Waters in the Digital Twin Ocean

The European IDEATION project will deliver a comprehensive roadmap to the European Commission, including a reference architecture, use cases, and recommendations for designing a Digital Twin for Inland…

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Green energy for all: how hydrogen and electricity carry our future

In their book, Groene energie voor iedereen. Hoe waterstof en elektriciteit onze toekomst dragen, which is also published in English as Green energy for all. How hydrogen and…

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Aarhus ReWater

The municipality of Aarhus (Denmark), because its population is growing annually by 5000 people, faces the challenge of both creating a cleaner harbour and bay and increasing the capacity of wastewater treatment plants. The current wastewater treatment…

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Transformative Area-oriented Management

The drinking water sector is facing major challenges. Climate change, developments in society and institutional changes are forcing water utilities to seek more collaboration and coordination with other stakeholders so that they…

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RECREATE

Eleven European partners will be working together on using alternative sources and additional buffers to strengthen the resilience of water supplies to water scarcity. KWR is leading a work package with four varied regional case studies: in…

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PCR methods for legal parameters

In determining the (hygienic) quality of drinking water, use is made of E. coli, intestinal enterococci and bacteria from the coli group (coliforms) as indicator organisms. Culture methods are the standard technique used to establish the presence…

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Wiser with Metal

This practical study investigates how much aquafer can be reprocessed into iron powder of a known quality. If pure enough, the iron powder can be used for a range of high-grade applications, including as a carrier material…

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Rewarding: closing water and nitrate cycles in greenhouse horticulture

The greenhouse horticulture sector in the Netherlands is working on circular food production. On the road to achieving this goal, the sector must focus on, among other things,…

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An absolute barrier to PFAS in RO concentrate – no PFAS discharge to the environment in the drinking water sector (PAK PFAS)

An inventory study (KWR 2021.040) has shown that drinking water utilities find PFAS in their sources. PFAS are removed effectively during treatment with reverse osmosis (RO) but this…

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Value Case Development: a process methodology for sustainable decision-making

Drinking water utilities will have to make major investments in the coming decades in areas such as asset infrastructure in order to maintain their capacity to continue supplying…

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Closing the Cycle of Nutrients from Wastewater and Process Water (KNAP)

In this cross-sectoral project within TKI Water Technology and TKI Agri & Food, research partners WUR/WENR, KWR and LeAF are working together with a wide range of public-…

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Waterrotonde Eerbeek

A pilot project has been organised with a circular water management system at the Industriewater Eerbeek (IWE) site. Existing plants treat process water from paper and cardboard mills and recover residual products for use in agriculture. The…

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Monitoring, modelling and reducing nitrous oxide emissions from WWTPs

Towards mitigation strategies for WWTPs through intensive monitoring and modelling of N2O emissions Industry and society are striving to reduce the carbon footprint in response to tackling climate…

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Roadmap for Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) to monitor microbial drinking water quality

The Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) analysis method is suitable for investigating the composition of complex microbial populations. NGS is very valuable for identifying changes in the composition of microbial…

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From non-target screening to risk assessment

Non-target screening, bioassays and computer modelling can provide information about the structure, concentration and toxicity of unknown substances in water. Until now, these chemical, biological and computing methods have often been used…

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Towards a knowledge programme for PVC pipe systems

We are researching how drinking water utilities can collect sufficient information about their PVC pipe systems in the years ahead, with a view to further improving the management of existing and yet-to-be-installed…

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Determining reliability of modelling of drinking water warming

Water utilities want to know at which locations in the distribution network, and during which periods, risks of excessively warm drinking water may occur, and what targeted measures…

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Methods for decision-making under deep uncertainty

Progressing climate change, technological developments and population growth put our society and also the water sector in a situation of deep uncertainty. Deep uncertainty is a technical term for the unpredictability of…

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Digital twin as experience accelerator

In which situations can a digital twin of the distribution process play a valuable role in the training of new staff? This is the central question in the project entitled: ‘On the…

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System Knowledge and Water-Energy-Food-Ecosystem Nexus

Land, food, energy, water and ecosystems are linked to each other (the WEFE nexus), and form interconnected socio-metabolisms at different scales. Within Public Design for Water, we work in…

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The ‘Integrated Area Plan’: designing and assessing integrated solutions in area processes

This project is exploring how professionals working in practice can arrive at well-considered ‘Integrated Area Plans’. An Integrated Area Plan focuses on multiple and integrated solutions for various…

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Effect of temperature on the growth of opportunistic pathogens

This project is investigating how the heating up of drinking water affects the growth of opportunistic pathogens in the mains system. We are using a pilot array that…

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The effects on biological stability and later growth of mixing treated water from alternative sources and conventionally produced drinking water

This project will determine the effect of mixing drinking water extracted from new sources (groundwater and surface water) with drinking water from conventional treatment on the biological stability…

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Sewage surveillance of drug use

Drug use is a recognised societal problem. It is damaging to public health and has negative (undermining) consequences for public security and the environment. An effective drug policy needs to be founded on reliable drug-use and -dealing…

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Reliable detection and control of Legionella pneumophila in wastewater

In recent years, the number of registered patients with a Legionella infection has increased in the Netherlands, with the majority of infections caused by Legionella pneumophila. L. pneumophila…

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Customer Perspectives and Behavioural Research

In the transition to a more water-aware society, it is essential to listen to and fully understand drinking water customers. How do these customers view drinking water and water conservation? What do…

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Social Environment and Area Planning Processes

We live in a time of transitions and changes, both in organisations and in the physical environment. We have ambitions in the area of climate adaptation, the water transition, the energy transition…

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Futures Studies and Strategy Development

For the timely recognition of threats and opportunities, and, as a society, to react to them effectively, we need to explore the future. Within Public Design for Water, the Futures Studies and…

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Water-kennis: an immersive media experience

Turn on your tap, shower or flush your toilet, and clean water flows out. But where does this water come from? The availability of enough clean water has become an issue for…

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Monitoring nutrient measures

In many areas of the Netherlands the surface-water quality still does not meet the WFD targets. In the present project two catchment areas in the provinces of North Brabant and Flevoland are being intensively monitored for nutrients,…

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Customer Perspectives 2.0

In the Joint Research Programme (BTO) Customer theme group, four customer perspectives were developed which provide insight into the diversity of drinking water customers, with their different expectations, desires, concerns and needs. In 2018, the distribution and…

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Can’t escape the WaterScape: transforming water and governance systems for dealing with climate impacts in the Dutch Delta

With projected increase in floods and drought it is apparent that the Dutch water system needs to change. In WaterScape we explore large-scale spatial transitions in the physical…

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AMVD Reference Document revision

Dutch drinking water utilities need to demonstrate that drinking water is safe and does not spread any infectious diseases. To this end, they establish for each drinking water treatment process an Analysis of Microbial Safety of Drinking…

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Socio-technological legitimisation of water-related reuse

Institutional trust and legal and regulatory frameworks can contribute to the socio-technological legitimisation of new technologies for water-related reuse. In this study, twelve legitimisation strategies were identified (see…

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BTO/WiCE 2024-2029: current and urgent

The Onderzoeksvisie Gezamenlijk Wateronderzoek voor 2024-2029 voor BTO/WiCE (BTO/WiCE Research Vision of the Collective Water Research for 2024-2029) presents a varied and current programme with innovation, valuable knowledge development and a focus…

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Accelerate Energy Transition with Aquathermia 2.0

In its National Climate Agreement, the Dutch government has made commitments to reducing the emission of CO2. One of the sectors referred to in the agreement is the built environment. Heat demand…

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Effect of temperature on the growth of opportunistic pathogens

In this study we investigate how the increase in the temperature of drinking water influences the growth of particular pathogens, known as opportunistic pathogens, in the drinking water…

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Alternative Drinking Water Sources

Safeguarding microbial safety in the use of alternative drinking water sources is an important subject of concern for the future. For this reason, drinking water utilities are researching the potential of new…

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The Ultimate Water Plant

The Ultimate Water Plant is a collaborative project involving parties in the water sector who want to demonstrate how, and subject to which conditions, treated sewage can be made available as a supplementary source of drinking water.…

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ProVe IT-LT: Proven Safe and Innovative Hot Tap Water at Low Temperature

A low temperature (LT; 50 °C) in heating networks offers various advantages, such as reduced heat loss during heat distribution. Moreover, a low supply temperature is also increasingly…

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Longitudinal customer research

Longitudinal customer research can help drinking water utilities better tailor their services to their customers. To enable the best possible design of these studies, an ‘ideal’ questionnaire has been developed, as a part of a larger whole.…

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The customer as tourist

For the drinking water utilities customers are not only drinking water consumers. As tourists they also use the nature areas that these organisations manage. What is the perception of the customer as tourists? And to what extent…

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The role of sludge in infiltration ponds in OMP removal during dune infiltration

Drinking water utilities that use dune infiltration or riverbank filtration employ infiltration ponds with a sludge layer. This project investigates the role played by the thickness and conditions…

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ANCHOR: broad knowledge development about urban water reuse

In this project, we will study the application of water reuse in the built environment from technical, societal, governance and economic perspectives. The goal is to establish a…

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Biological treatment of RO concentrate

Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water treatment technique that involves the use of semi-permeable membranes to remove unwanted molecules and particles. It is an effective way of extracting a wide variety of…

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Risk of L. pneumophila with heating networks

In this project, a qualitative microbiological risk analysis is being conducted to determine the effect of using heating networks for domestic connections on the number of patients with L. pneumophila. In addition, we…

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VIPNL: Wetland crops on water-rich peat

This project is investigating how wetland agriculture on water-rich peat can help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and land subsidence, and deliver improvements in water quality and biodiversity. The focus is on…

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TUBES as a controlled test environment for low-threshold pilot projects

In this project, we are investigating the possibilities and limitations of distributed-optical-fibre detection techniques in a controlled test environment. This projectis being organised in a broad alliance of…

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Lead from brass components – phase III

This project examines the Dutch drinking water sector’s sampling protocol to control lead concentrations at the tap. With a tightening of the lead standard, the performance of this protocol needs to be…

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Insight into connecting pipes

There is still not enough attention being paid to connecting pipes in the transport and distribution network of the Dutch water utilities and De Watergroep in Flanders. Our understanding of the condition, failure probability and residual lifespan…

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Impact of internal factors on malfunctions

Can malfunctions and/or repair work and pump operations lead to new malfunctions in the mains? This project will investigate this question by determining whether there is a statistical relationship between these factors…

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Quantitative added value of digital water meters and other sensors at customer locations

What are the benefits for the distribution process of different versions of smart water meters and the additional sensors? In this project, quantitative descriptions and model studies will…

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Improving the reliability and practicality of an AI-based tool for data validation and correction

Water companies are increasingly using sensor data for advanced process monitoring and control for key variables. They are therefore increasingly reliant on high-quality data. In this project, the…

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Reduction of pressure on groundwater through reuse of water from dairy plants in agriculture

Groundwater in the Netherlands is under pressure, both in terms of quantity and quality. Groundwater is used in several activities, including drinking water production, agriculture and industry. In…

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Digital water – building a conceptual cost-benefit framework based on the experiences of frontrunners

Several water companies at home and abroad have taken far-reaching steps in digitising their operations. In this project, we deepen our understanding of the drivers of frontrunners for…

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Evaluation of Aeromonas legal standard

Since the 1980s Aeromonas in drinking water has been included as a microbiological parameter in the Dutch Drinking Water Decree. Currently, Aeromonas standard exceedances are generally tolerated, partly because it is unclear…

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IWA Micropol 2026 in Toronto

10 June 2026 — From May 31st to June 4th, 2026, experts from all over the world gathered in Toronto for the,…

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News

Janine de Wit’s PhD research contributes to solutions for freshwater availability

08 June 2026 — On 29 May, KWR researcher Janine de Wit obtained her PhD at Wageningen University & Research (WUR) for…

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Blog

Wasser 2026 Conference in Kiel

03 June 2026 — From May 11–13, 2026, experts from mainly Germany gathered in Kiel for Wasser 2026, the 92nd Annual Meeting…

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Water Sector

Lab Public Design for Water is working to transform water management practices

02 June 2026 — Through the Public Design for Water Lab, KWR is committed to transforming water practices for and by the…

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News

Art and science working together: a new view of the water transition

18 May 2026 — For more than six months, artist Mariko Hori immersed herself in the world of the researchers at KWR.…

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News

A broad view of PFAS

13 May 2026 — On the basis of multidisciplinary research and a broad view, KWR contributes to solutions for PFAS issues in…

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Blog

Bringing people together in the age of AI

12 May 2026 — At EGU26, advances in AI, modelling, uncertainty, and digital platforms highlighted a shift in the role of researchers.…

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Blog

Nontarget2026 conference

07 May 2026 — Last April, 110 scientists and practitioners in the field of non-target screening met to discuss developments in this technique to monitor unknown compounds in environmental matrices. Situated…

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Blog

Water Stories

29 April 2026 — Water lives in memories, emotions and the imagination: a summer evening by a lake, the power of the…

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News

The new hexamonitor, for drinking water that is biologically even safer

22 April 2026 — The new hexamonitor is up and running in Waternet’s test hall at the Weesperkarspel production site. This test…

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News

Wim van Vierssen receives 2025 Honorary Fellowship

17 April 2026 — On 16 April, Wim van Vierssen accepted the KWR Honorary Fellowship 2025 in the eloquent KWR building that…

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Blog

KWR at NWO NAC 2026

16 April 2026 — On Thursday 9 and Friday 10 April, KWR was present at NWO NAC, the Dutch congress for all…

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News

HPLC-UV-screening: vroegsignaleren organische microverontreiniging in Rijn en Maas

13 April 2026 — Al vijftien jaar fungeert een early warning-systeem als poortwachter voor stoffen die ons land via de Rijn en…

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News

2025 Annual Review: strategic steps for a future-resilient water sector

13 April 2026 — For water, 2025 was a year of significant strategic developments, both at KWR and beyond. The 2025 Annual…

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News

Paul van der Wielen appointed professor by special appointment of Microbial Ecology of Water Systems

10 April 2026 — Paul van der Wielen, principal microbiologist at KWR, has been appointed professor by special appointment of Microbial Ecology…

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News

2025 Willem Koerselman Prize goes to co-author Frederic Béen

08 April 2026 — On 7 April, Frederic Béen received the 2025 Willem Koerselman Prize for the scientific publication ‘NORMAN guidance on…

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News

KWR and Rijkswaterstaat launch large-scale innovative monitoring project

01 April 2026 — KWR and Rijkswaterstaat will be starting a new monitoring project at twenty Dutch wastewater treatment plants in 2026.…

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Blog

AquaNL day 3: Water quality, water reuse, and chance encounters

27 March 2026 — The third day of AquaNL was devoted to water quality, water reuse and the question of how we…

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